Power Sector Transition in Mediterranean/North Africa

Introduction

For the purposes of campaign planning, the Mediterranean countries captured in this page are Algeria, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, Tunisia, and Türkiye. This was determined based on existing renewable planning, as well as the presence of active campaigners on the ground. As a whole, these countries have a total population of 513,013,676 residents and a land area of 8,580,752 square kilometers. All countries have a 100% access to electricity across their populations with the exception of Libya, which sits at a 70% rate.

Symbolic Importance

The Mediterranean region is a hotspot for climate change, which is "warming faster than the global average... at rates about 20% above global means." The social and environmental impacts of continued fossil fuel use are substantial, ranging from weather events like droughts and floods to population declines of endemic species (see sections Current impacts from fossil fuels and Land availability).

Development of renewables in the Mediterranean has been fairly uneven. Most renewables in the region have been deployed on the northern side in Europe, despite the immense renewable energy potential in North Africa. According to think tanks like Italy's Ecco, energy market integration between across the Mediterranean would offer "enhanced energy security and power system reliability, supply mix diversification, lower power system costs, and, therefore, lower consumer prices." European development of domestic renewable energy would severely diminish reliance on Russian oil and gas, and connections across the Mediterranean can help to create prosperity for Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) countries.

Current System Description

Current Power Capacity Mix

Total regional operating capacity Data compiled from Global Energy Monitor's Power Trackers.
Energy Source	Installed Operating Capacity
Solar	63,686.6 MW
Wind	93,500.8 MW
Nuclear	73,098.0 MW
Oil and Gas	234,822.0 MW
Coal	35,432.4 MW
Hydropower	90,777.0 MW
Bioenergy	1,871.0 MW
Geothermal	2,585.8 MW
Total	594,123.6 MW

According to Global Energy Monitor's power sector trackers, the Mediterranean region is dominated by oil and gas, though wind and solar are growing in their respective shares. France and Spain are the only nations covered in this page that have operating nuclear capacity, with Türkiye, Egypt, and France currently developing nuclear assets.

Operating power mix in select Mediterranean countries. Scope includes Algeria, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Portugal, Spain, Tunisia, and Türkiye, with country-specific operation data included in the table below. Data from Global Energy Monitor's Power Sector Trackers.

National operating capacity for each Mediterranean country Data compiled from Global Energy Monitor's Power Trackers.
Country	Solar	Wind	Oil & Gas	Coal	Nuclear	Bioenergy	Geothermal	Hydropower
Algeria	475 MW	10 MW	24,17 MW					172 MW
Egypt	3,395 MW	1,893 MW	2,325 MW					2,906 MW
France	12,209 MW	25,319 MW	11,695 MW	1,907 MW	65,690 MW	408 MW	2 MW	19,623 MW
Greece	1,601 MW	5,313 MW	7,526 MW	1,655 MW				3,119 MW
Italy	5,081 MW	10,198 MW	48,785 MW	5,190 MW		590 MW	834 MW	15,585 MW
Jordan	1,610 MW	621 MW	4,523 MW
Lebanon			2,684 MW					156 MW
Libya	500 MW		14,267 MW
Morocco	819 MW	1,291 MW	1,901 MW	4,092 MW				1,462 MW
Portugal	2,778 MW	5,640 MW	4,652 MW			210 MW	24 MW	7,578 MW
Spain	30,563 MW	29,971 MW	30,771 MW	2,115 MW	7,408 MW	543 MW		15,232 MW
Tunisia	46 MW	253 MW	5,451 MW
Türkiye	4,609 MW	12,993 MW	26,065 MW	20,473 MW		120 MW	1,726 MW	24,944 MW

Prospective Power Capacity

Prospective Power Capacity by Mediterranean Country. Only priority countries are included.

Algeria
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	852 MW	2,922 MW	101 MW	3,875 MW
Oil and Gas	0 MW	0 MW	4,645 MW	4,645 MW
Total	852 MW	2,922 MW	4,746 MW	Grand Total: 8,520 MW
Egypt
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	7,131.5 MW	11,566 MW	200 MW	18,897.5 MW
Wind	11,611.5 MW	33,563 MW	2,362 MW	47,536.5 MW
Nuclear	0 MW	0 MW	4,800 MW	4,800 MW
Oil and Gas	125 MW	0 MW	2,550 MW	2,675 MW
Hydropower	0 MW	0 MW	2,400MW	2,400 MW
Bioenergy	100 MW	30 MW	0 MW	130 MW
Total	18,968 MW	45,159 MW	12,312 MW	Grand Total: 76,439 MW
France
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	2,298.2 MW	726.4 MW	427.7 MW	3,452.3 MW
Wind	8,772 MW	8,750.1 MW	1,759.6 MW	19,281.7 MW
Nuclear	6,600 MW	3,300 MW	0 MW	9,900 MW
Bioenergy	0 MW	130 MW	64 MW	194 MW
Total	17,670.2 MW	12,906.5 MW	2,251.3 MW	Grand Total: 32,828 MW
Greece
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	19,201 MW	52,225.2 MW	2,648.1 MW	74,074.3 MW
Wind	4,851.8 MW	21,578.8 MW	599.5 MW	27,030.1 MW
Oil and Gas	407 MW	2,627 MW	1,717 MW	4,751 MW
Geothermal	8 MW	0 MW	0 MW	8 MW
Hydropower	0 MW	984 MW	162 MW	1,146 MW
Total	24,467.8 MW	77,415 MW	5,126.6 MW	Grand Total: 107,009.4 MW
Italy
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	1,710.3 MW	2,366.6 MW	742.1 MW	4,819 MW
Wind	16,727.5 MW	29,362.6 MW	67.2 MW	46,157.3 MW
Oil and Gas	1,385 MW	4,811 MW	968 MW	7,164 MW
Hydropower	0 MW	270 MW	98 MW	368 MW
Total	19,822.8 MW	36,810.2 MW	1,875.3 MW	Grand Total: 58,508.3 MW
Jordan
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	0 MW	530 MW	0 MW	530 MW
Wind	1,000 MW	0 MW	0 MW	1,000 MW
Oil and Gas	0 MW	600 MW	0 MW	600 MW
Hydropower	0 MW	450 MW	0 MW	450 MW
Total	1,000 MW	1,580 MW	0 MW	Grand Total: 2,580 MW
Lebanon
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	0 MW	165 MW	0 MW	165 MW
Wind	0 MW	220 MW	0 MW	220 MW
Hydropower	0 MW	0 MW	100 MW	100 MW
Total	0 MW	385 MW	100 MW	Grand Total: 485 MW
Libya
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	30,400 MW	50 MW	0 MW	30,450 MW
Wind	600 MW	0 MW	0 MW	0 MW
Oil and Gas	2,355 MW	1,160 MW	6,460 MW	9,975 MW
Total	33,355 MW	1,210 MW	6,460 MW	Grand Total: 41,025 MW
Morocco
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	12,500 MW	15,021 MW	894 MW	28,415 MW
Wind	27,500 MW	7,773 MW	798 MW	36,071 MW
Oil and Gas	3,250 MW	457 MW	990 MW	4,697 MW
Hydropower	728 MW	0 MW	335 MW	1,063 MW
Total	43,978 MW	23,784 MW	2,484 MW	Grand Total: 70,246 MW
Portugal
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	1,267.3 MW	3,951.3 MW	788.2 MW	6,006.8 MW
Wind	5,342 MW	514.1 MW	25 MW	5,881.1 MW
Geothermal	10 MW	0 MW	0 MW	10 MW
Total	6,609.3 MW	4,475.4 MW	813.2 MW	Grand Total: 11,897.9 MW
Spain
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	19,426.3 MW	86,537.2 MW	6,493.3 MW	112,456.8 MW
Wind	6,089.4 MW	33,712.8 MW	1,315 MW	41,117.2 MW
Oil and Gas	0 MW	0 MW	494 MW	494 MW
Hydropower	1800 MW	2,973 MW	200 MW	4,973 MW
Bioenergy	0 MW	0 MW	146 MW	146 MW
Total	27,315.7 MW	123,223 MW	8,648.3 MW	Grand Total: 159,187 MW
Tunisia
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	820 MW	5,012 MW	400 MW	6,232 MW
Wind	525 MW	75 MW	30 MW	630 MW
Oil and Gas	0 MW	900 MW	0 MW	900 MW
Hydropower	400 MW	0 MW	0 MW	400 MW
Total	1,745 MW	5,987 MW	430 MW	Grand Total: 8,162 MW
Türkiye
	Announced	Pre-construction	Construction	Total
Solar	752.2 MW	285 MW	1,223.4 MW	2,260.6 MW
Wind	122.8 MW	2,480.2 MW	0 MW	2,603 MW
Oil and Gas	0 MW	0 MW	890 MW	890 MW
Coal	0 MW	688 MW	0 MW	688 MW
Nuclear	9,900 MW	0 MW	4,800 MW	14,700 MW
Geothermal	10 MW	420.4 MW	93.5 MW	473.9 MW
Hydropower	81 MW	1,689 MW	496 MW	2,266 MW
Total	10,866 MW	6,501 MW	6,514.5 MW	Grand Total: 23,881.5 MW

Renewables in the Mediterranean and North Africa

Renewable Targets

Algeria:

• Nationally Determined Contribution (2016):
  • Intends to reach 27% renewable power generation in the national electricity mix by 2030.
• National Program for the Development of Renewable Energy (2020): Outlines specific 2030 installation targets:
  • 13.5 GW of solar
  • 5 GW of wind
  • 2 GW of thermal solar
  • 1 GW of biomass.
  • The Program also updated renewable energy’s target share in the national electricity mix to 30% by 2035.

Egypt:

• Second Updated Nationally Determined Contribution (2023):
  • Increase renewable energy share in electricity generation to 42% by 2030.
• In October 2024, Egypt reduced its 2040 renewable energy target from 58% to 40% of total energy share.

France:

• European Union’s Nationally Determined Contribution (2023): Aims to:

1. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 (compared to 1990 levels)
2. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions in ETS sectors (in which electricity is included) by 62% by 2030
3. Achieve climate neutrality by 2050
4. Increase renewable energy share in final consumption to at least 42.5% by 2030, with a stretch goal of 45%

• National Multiannual Energy Programme: Outlines the following capacity installation ambitions by 2030:
  • 26 GW of hydropower (achieved in 2023)
  • 33 to 35 GW of onshore wind
  • 54 to 60 GW of solar PV
  • 4 GW of offshore wind.
• Additionally, France intends to generate 35% of electricity from renewable power by 2030, and in total, France's renewable energy installation target is 90.6 GW by 2030.

Greece:

• European Union’s Nationally Determined Contribution (2023):Aims to:

1. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 (compared to 1990 levels)
2. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions in ETS sectors (in which electricity is included) by 62% by 2030
3. Achieve climate neutrality by 2050
4. Increase renewable energy share in final consumption to at least 42.5% by 2030, with a stretch goal of 45%

• National Energy and Climate Plan (2023): Establishes goals of:
  • Reducing national greenhouse gas emissions by 58% by 2030
  • 80% reduction by 2040 and carbon neutrality by 2050.

Italy:

• European Union’s Nationally Determined Contribution (2023):Aims to:

1. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 (compared to 1990 levels)
2. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions in ETS sectors (in which electricity is included) by 62% by 2030
3. Achieve climate neutrality by 2050
4. Increase renewable energy share in final consumption to at least 42.5% by 2030, with a stretch goal of 45%

• By 2030, Italy aims to reach 69% renewable electricity and install ~131 GW of renewables.
• The country is also aiming for carbon neutrality by 2050.

Jordan:

• First Nationally Determined Contribution (2021):
  • 35% renewable energy share in the national electricity mix by 2030
  • Reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 10% by 2030
• More recently, Jordan’s Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources articulated a national target of reaching 50% renewable energy in electricity generation by 2030, a stark and ambitious increase relative to their NDC just a few years prior.

Lebanon:

• First Nationally Determined Contribution (2020):
  • 30% renewable energy share in electricity generation (conditional) by 2030, or 18% (unconditional)

Libya:

• National Strategy for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (2023):
  • 17% renewables in the national energy mix by 2025, 19% by 2030, and 20% by 2035.

Morocco:

• Nationally Determined Contribution (2021): By 2030, 52% of total installed capacity is to be renewable, broken down as 20% solar, 20% wind, and 12% hydropower.

Portugal:

• European Union’s Nationally Determined Contribution (2023):Aims to:

1. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 (compared to 1990 levels)
2. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions in ETS sectors (in which electricity is included) by 62% by 2030
3. Achieve climate neutrality by 2050
4. Increase renewable energy share in final consumption to at least 42.5% by 2030, with a stretch goal of 45%

• National Energy and Climate Plan (2024) By 2030, projects that Portugal will have the following capacities installed:
  • 10.4 GW of onshore wind
  • 2.0 GW of offshore wind
  • 15.1 GW of centralized/utility-scale solar
  • 5.7 GW of decentralized/distributed solar installed

Spain:

• European Union’s Nationally Determined Contribution (2023):Aims to:

1. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030 (compared to 1990 levels)
2. Decrease greenhouse gas emissions in ETS sectors (in which electricity is included) by 62% by 2030
3. Achieve climate neutrality by 2050
4. Increase renewable energy share in final consumption to at least 42.5% by 2030, with a stretch goal of 45%

• Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan 2023-2030 (2024): Installations by 2030:
  • 76 GW of solar PV, including 19 GW of self-consumptive solar
  • 62 GW of wind, including 3 GW of offshore wind
  • 22.5 GW of storage
  • 12 GW of green hydrogen
  • Improved efficiency of nearly 1.4 million dwellings
  • Overall electrification rate of 35%.
• In total, Spain's renewable energy installation target is 178.5 GW by 2030.

Tunisia:

• Tunisian Solar Plan: outlines the following renewable energy installed capacity targets by 2030:
  • 1,755 MW of wind
  • 1,510 MW of solar PV
  • 450 MW of concentrated solar power
• In 2022, Tunisia increased its renewable energy target to 35% of total energy generation by 2030. To achieve this goal, the Country plans to invest TND 900 million/year (~USD $294 million/year) to develop more than 4 GW of renewable energy projects by 2030.

Türkiye:

• Updated First Nationally Determined Contribution (2023):
  • Increase share of renewable energy in final energy consumption to 20.4% by 2030
• National Energy Plan (2022) By 2035, the Government of Türkiye estimates the following installation totals:
  • 24.6 GW of onshore wind
  • 5.0 GW of offshore wind
  • 52.9 GW of solar power
  • 35.1 GW of hydropower
  • 5.1 GW of geothermal and biomass power.
• In total, Türkiye's renewable energy installation target is 91.2 GW by 2030. The country has also declared a goal of net-zero emissions by 2053.

In addition, all countries featured on this page are exploring plans for green hydrogen production.

Major Renewable Projects

In-development low-carbon energy projects in priority Mediterranean countries.
Solar
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
Libya	Special Economic Zone Topeka solar farm	25,000 MW	Announced
Greece	Vardali Domokou solar farm	11,000 MW	Announced
Morocco	AMUN solar farm	7,500 MW	Announced
Morocco	Morocco-UK Solar Power	7,000 MW	Pre-Construction
Greece	Boukka solar farm	6,650 MW	Announced
Wind
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
Egypt	ACWA wind farm	10,000 MW	Announced
Morocco	White Dunes wind farm	10,000 MW	Announced
Egypt	Masdar-Infinity wind farm	8,000 MW	Pre-Construction
Morocco	AMUN wind farm	7,500 MW	Announced
Egypt	West Sohag wind farm	5,000 MW	Pre-Construction
Nuclear
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
Türkiye	İğneada nuclear power plant, Phases 1-4	5,300 MW	Announced
Egypt	El Dabaa nuclear power plant, phases 1-4	4,800 MW	Construction
Türkiye	Akkuyu nuclear power plant	4,800 MW	Construction
Türkiye	Sinop nuclear power plant	4,600 MW	Announced
France	Gravelines nuclear power plant, Phases 7-8	3,300 MW	Announced
Geothermal
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
Türkiye	Agri Diyadin geothermal power plant, phases 1-3	150 MW	Pre-Construction
Türkiye	Kızıldere-4 geothermal power plant	60 MW	Pre-Construction
Türkiye	Alaşehir 3 geothermal power plant	50 MW	Pre-Construction
Türkiye	Tekkehamam 2 geothermal power plant	35 MW	Pre-Construction
Türkiye	Emir geothermal power plant	33 MW	Pre-Construction
Hydropower
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
Egypt	Gabal Ataqah hydroelectric plant	2,400 MW	Construction
Spain	Conso II hydroelectric plant	1,800 MW	Announced
Spain	Aguayo II hydroelectric plant	1,000 MW	Pre-Construction
Türkiye	Eğirdir Golunde hydroelectric plant	1,000 MW	Pre-Construction
Spain	P-Phes Navaleo hydroelectric plant	552 MW	Pre-Construction

Operating low-carbon energy projects in priority Mediterranean countries.
Solar
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
Türkiye	Karapınar Yeka solar farm, phase 2	1,079 MW	Operating
Spain	Cifuentes-Trillo solar farm	626 MW	Operating
Spain	Francisco Pizarro solar farm	553 MW	Operating
Egypt	Abydos Kom Ombo solar farm	500 MW	Operating
Spain	Núñez De Balboa solar farm	500 MW	Operating
Wind
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
France	Fecamp wind farm	498 MW	Operating
France	Saint-Brieuc wind farm	496 MW	Operating
France	Yeu And Noirmoutier wind farm	496 MW	Operating
France	Saint Nazaire wind farm	480 MW	Operating
Spain	GECAMA wind farm	329.2 MW	Operating
Nuclear
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
France	Paluel nuclear power plant, Units 1-4	5,528 MW	Operating
France	Civaux nuclear power plant, Units 1-2	3,122 MW	Operating
France	Chooz nuclear power plant, Units B-1 and B-2	3,120 MW	Operating
France	Flamanville nuclear power plant, Units 1-2	2,764 MW	Operating
France	Penly nuclear power plant, phases 1-2	2,764 MW	Operating
Geothermal
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
Türkiye	Kızıldere-3 geothermal power plant, Phases 1-2	166 MW	Operating
Türkiye	Germencik geothermal power plant	123.3 MW	Operating
Italy	Valle Secolo geothermal power plant, Phases 1-2	120 MW	Operating
Türkiye	Kızıldere-2 geothermal power plant	80 MW	Operating
Italy	Farinello geothermal power plant	60 MW	Operating
Hydropower
Country	Project Name	Capacity	Status
Türkiye	Ataturk hydroelectric plant	2,405 MW	Operating
Egypt	Aswan High Dam hydroelectric plant	2,100 MW	Operating
Türkiye	Karakaya hydroelectric plant	1,800 MW	Operating
France	Grand Maison hydroelectric plant	1,713 MW	Operating
Türkiye	Keban hydroelectric plant	1,330 MW	Operating

Potential of Renewables

Wind and solar potential for the Mediterranean as a whole is estimated to be 3 terawatts, with an estimated 172 GW currently installed.

The Mediterranean has substantial technical offshore wind potential (an estimated 1,135.5 GW total). Tunisia, Italy, Libya, and Greece have a combined technical potential of 782 GW, with Tunisia and Italy having installation potentials of 183.8 GW and 206.8 GW, respectively. France has the lowest levelized cost of energy at 67.5 €/MWh, followed by Tunisia at 76.7 €/MWh. Türkiye has a technical potential resource of 75 GW, with wind speeds exceeding 9.5 m/s. Given the sea basin's depth, the Mediterranean will likely see a majority of floating offshore wind installations rather than fixed bottom. Installed floating offshore wind could reach 12 GW by 2030 and 40 GW by 2050, by some estimates.

Mean solar irradiance of the Mediterranean, in W/m. Originally published in 2020 by researchers from the University College Cork and University of Plymouth.

PV Power Production Potential of Europe. Europe's greatest resource is in the south near the Mediterranean, with peaks found in Türkiye and Spain. Originally published by SolarGIS.

PV Power Potential of the Middle East and North Africa, as originally published by SolarGIS.

Potential impacts from renewables expansion

In general, renewable energy impacts will vary from country to country. In Morocco, where about 90% of energy is imported, there are concerns about the human rights impacts that renewable energy build-out may have on rural communities in particular. Solar and wind farms are water-intensive, and their development may exacerbate existing strains and inequities. One example is the Dakhla wind farm in the Moroccan-occupied Western Sahara, which has received significant resistance on the ground due to flimsy community engagement processes in a location where "Moroccan settlers outnumber the Saharawis that have not fled the territory." The European Union Court of Justice has openly rejected this practice. In Tunisia, renewable energy projects located on ancestral, agricultural, or otherwise significant land have received pushback, largely due to the process of land "dispossession" and a lack of compensation to locals. For example, beginning in the early 2000s, villagers in Borj Essalhi have stopped paying their electric bills to protest a wind farm located less than 50 meters from residential areas. Locals are demanding compensation for use of the land, which they claim was taken from them, as well as asking turbines to be moved further from their homes. Similarly, in Segdoud, collective agricultural lands have been taken by the State for a solar project called for in the 2015 Solar Plan, without compensation.

Offshore wind in particular poses risk of impacts to the environment and maritime industries. With regards to environmental impacts, offshore wind may create noise and electromagnetism pollution that can aggravate species, in particular cetaceans like whales and dolphins. Turbines may alter the number, distribution, and composition of fish species near project areas and may hinder migration. That said, turbines can create foundations for shellfish, creating a base for ecosystem food webs. Fishers may be displaced, particularly during construction, though early and ongoing consultations can support economic stability in affected communities.

That said, addressing climate change would have direct positive impacts on the region. As described in the Current fossil fuel impacts section, the Mediterranean region is highly vulnerable to climate change, and making any efforts to reduce emissions and transition industries toward low-carbon alternatives will help mitigate some of these impacts. According to the Air Quality Life Index, bringing particulate matter 2.5 pollution to World Health Organization guidelines would increase the average life expectancy in every country highlighted in this page. Specifically, Egypt would see an increase of 1.39 years, France would see an increase of 0.34 years, Italy would see an increase of 0.79 years, Morocco would see an increase of 0.2 years, Spain would see an increase of 0.24 years, Tunisia would see an increase of 0.51 years, and Türkiye would see an increase of 1.58 years.

Fossil Fuels in the Mediterranean and North Africa

Fossil Resources and Retirement

While Türkiye is the only country featured on this page that has active coal mines (34 as of May 2025), Italy, Spain, Egypt, and Türkiye all have closed coal mine facilities. Spain ranks the highest with 15 coal mine closures. Additionally, operating plants powered by coal, oil, and gas are common in the region. Egypt has 110 oil and gas units. France has 94 oil and gas plants and 3 active coal plants. Italy has 176 oil and gas plants and 10 coal plants. Morocco has 11 oil and gas plants and 11 coal plants. Spain has 159 oil and gas plants and 6 coal plants. Tunisia has 25 oil and gas plants. Türkiye has 88 oil and gas plants and 79 coal plants. An additional 18,155 MW of fossil fuel power plants are in various stages of development.

European imports of fossil fuels dropped considerably in 2024 and the beginning of 2025, as compared to 2021 through 2023. In contrast, Morocco is heavily reliant on the import of fossil fuels for its energy needs, though the national government is undertaking efforts to reduce this dependence and strengthen domestic energy production. In addition to these imports, the Mediterranean has retired a fair amount of its fossil fuel power plants, illustrated below:

Coal and Oil & Gas retirements in priority Mediterranean countries

Country	Retired Power Plants	Total Capacity Retired (MW)
Egypt	Ataka Steam power plant, Units ST1-ST2 Cairo South power plant, Units 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, and 2-1 New Damietta power plant, Units GT1-GT2 Talkha power plant, Unit 1-1 Talkha Steam power plant, Units ST1-ST2	Oil & Gas: 1,755 MW
France	Albi power station Arjowiggins Mill power station, Unit 1 Blénod power station, Units 1-4 Bois-Rouge power station, Units 1-2 Bouchain power station, Unit 2 Emile Huchet power station, Units 4-5 Hornaing-B power station La Maxe power station, Units 1-2 La Poterne power station Le Gol power station, Units 1 and 2 Le Havre power station, Phase 2 Units 1, 2, and 4 Loire-Sur-Rhone power station, Unit 2 Lucy-3 power station, Unit 1 Provence power station, Units 4-5 Vaires power station, Units 1-2 Vitry power station, Units 3-4	Coal: 6,849 MW Oil & Gas: 43 MW
Italy	Andrea Palladio power station, Units 1-4 Brescia power station, Unit 3 Brindisi Nord power station, Units 1-4 Brindisi Sud power station, Unit 2 Enel Genova power station, Units 3, 4 and 6 La Spezia power station, Unit 5 Monfalcone power station, Units 1-2 Pietrafitta power station, Units 1-2 Pietro Vannucci power station, Units 1-2 Porto Marghera Enel power station, Units 2-3 Santa Barbara power station, Units 1-2 Vado Ligure power station, Units 1, 3, and 4 Tavazzano power station, Unit GT8	Coal: 5,810 MW Oil & Gas: 320 MW
Morocco	Jerada power station, Units 1-3	Coal: 165 MW
Spain	Alcúdia power station, Phase 2 Units 1-2 Anllares power station, Unit 1 As Pontes power station, Units 1-4 Bahia de Algeciras power station, Unit 1-2 Cercs power station, Unit 1 Compostilla power station, Units 1-5 Escatrón 3 power station, Unit 5 Escucha power station, Unit 1 La Pereda Hunosa power station La Robla Fenosa power station, Units 1-2 Lada power station, Units 2-4 Litoral de Almería power station, Units 1-2 Meirama power station, Unit 1 Narcea power station, Units 1-3 Pasajes power station, Unit 1 Puente Nuevo power station, Units 1-3 Puertollano IGCC power station Puertollano power station Soto de Ribera power station, Units 1-2 Teruel power station, Units 1-3 Torrelavega Mill power station, Unit S1 Velilla del Río Carrión power station, Units 1-2 Jinamar power station, Units ST4-ST5 Torrelavega power station, Units 1-2	Coal: 11,677.4 MW Oil & Gas: 203 MW

Current impacts from fossil fuels

The Mediterranean is highly vulnerable to climate change and is warming at a rate about 20% raster than the global average. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, a 2°C increase in global temperatures would reduce rainfall up to 15%, and a 4°C increase would reduce rainfall by 30% in Southern Europe alone. Given that the region has a population of more than 500 million people, these changes would be catastrophic to existing livelihoods.

According to researchers, the Mediterranean is "characterised by a high level of endemism and species richness, encompassing a diverse range of marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecoregions." An estimated 7% of all biodiversity globally is found in the Mediterranean, and small changes in environmental systems can create massive impacts on fragile ecosystem webs. Other impacts identified by researchers are high pollution levels, land degradation and biogeochemical changes (particularly carbon-rich agricultural soils), increased ocean acidity, and sea level rise, especially in western North Africa, i.e. Morocco.

Specific event examples that have impacted Mediterranean nations are summarized in the table below:

Environmental Impacts of Climate Change in the Mediterranean

Environmental event	Year of event	Afflicted countries	Impact
Floods	2023	Italy Greece Spain Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Slovenia	Landslides Infrastructural damage
Droughts	2021-2023	Morocco Algeria Spain Southern France Northern Italy	Strained water resources Strain on agriculture Strain on energy production (especially hydropower)
Wildfires	2023	Italy Algeria Tunisia Greece	Human casualties Infrastructural damage Forest destruction Economic losses

Tunisia is particularly vulnerable to climate change. Ranked 20th in water scarcity globally, rainfall is projected to decrease by up to 30% by 2050. 44% of the coastline is vulnerable to sea level rise, with more than 3,100 hectares of urban land at risk of complete submersion. Lessened rainfall and greater salinity will negatively impact agricultural output and fish stocks, and the tourism sector could lose up to 1,000 jobs per year through 2030. Incidences of vector borne diseases are expected to increase. All of these impacts are expected to disproportionately impact poor, rural, and marginalized communities across the country.

In addition, migration is already fraught in the Mediterranean. In the 2022 IPCC report, climate change and its impacts on weather events will drive displacement and migration around the world. North Africa is expected to experience heat waves and droughts, both of which are and will continue to impact livelihoods, driving migration out of these locations.

Employment

Current employment from the fossil fuel sector

Global Energy Monitor's Global Coal Mine Tracker estimates that Türkiye, the only country featured on this page with active coal mines, employs 18,452 individuals.

The European Union aggregates employment statistics for member nations broken down by sectors. Energy supply services within the Utilities sector employed 207,300 individuals in France and 118,100 individuals in Italy.

Current employment from renewables

The Observeratoire Méditerranéen de l'Energie estimates a substantial increase in the number of Mediterranean renewable jobs. Between 2009 and 2019, renewable jobs in the region increased by over 20,000, from 39,000 to 72,000.

Several Mediterranean countries are already well-established in green and low-carbon industries. In 2023, Tunisia had 23% of the country's total employment come from green jobs, followed by Italy at 11%, Spain at 9%, Türkiye at 3%, France at 2%, and Morocco and Egypt at 1% each.

Employment statistics are relatively sparse, with varying levels of detail available across countries and generation types. In 2019, Egypt had an estimated 12,000 jobs across all renewable energy generation types. In 2022, Spain's renewable energy sector employed more than 130,000 people, which represents a 54% increase in renewable employment compared to 2018. The International Renewable Energy Agency's 2024 Renewable Energy and Jobs Annual Review estimates that in 2023, EU member states had 719,900 jobs in solar PV, with Italy alone having approximately 80,000 jobs attributed to solar. The same report highlights that Spain and France have approximately 40,000 and 25,000 jobs in wind energy, respectively.

Prospective employment from the renewable energy sector

The Economic Research Forum estimates that every dollar spent on renewables creates three times more jobs than the same investment in fossil fuels. About 5 million jobs in fossil fuel production could be lost by 2030, but another 14 million jobs in renewables could be created.

Several Mediterranean countries are prepping for their green economy futures, with working populations well-skilled for the energy transition. The Union for the Mediterranean projects the following green jobs numbers in 2030 for each country:

• Egypt: 120,000
• France: 200,000
• Italy: 698,000
• Morocco: 27,500
• Spain: 500,000
• Türkiye: 300,000
• Tunisia: 115,000

Other reports provide slightly different estimates. For example, achieving Egypt's clean energy and green technology goals will require the addition of 67,000 jobs per year until 2050. USD $1 million invested in either renewables or efficiency would create 25 and 10 jobs, respectively. In Morocco, investments toward the national renewable energy goals could create 25,000 net jobs (renewables created minus fossil fuels lost), though a lack of skilled workers is hindering progress, so appropriate workforce development programming is a necessity. Other regional estimates project the creation of 285,000 jobs under more conservative scenarios and 345,000 jobs under aggressive pathways by 2050. One study found that ten years of targeted wind and solar development in Türkiye could create jobs equivalent to 1.5%–3.9% of Turkey's total employment in 2020.

Land availability

The Mediterranean is a hotbed of different uses. Fishing is a EUR €4.6 billion industry employing an estimated 180,000 individuals across 80,000 vessels, which offshore energy will need to contend with. While the Convention on Biological Diversity called for the protection of 10% of marine and coastal waters by 2020, the Mediterranean far underperformed. An estimated 8.33% of the Mediterranean was officially designated as protected in 2020, with only 0.04% regulated to be no-go, no-take, or no-fishing area and the vast majority (over 97%) in European Union member states.

Fish catches have decreased over the last 20 years, with some species like the bluefin tuna reaching near-extinction due to overfishing and other human impacts. Additionally, the IUCN Red List has identified six animal species in the Mediterranean whose populations are decreasing specifically because of energy development and mining, which will likely influence siting of future offshore renewable energy and transmission lines. These species are:

• White Coral
• Velvet Scoter
• European Eel
• Hawksbill Turtle
• North African Shad
• Allis Shad

In the North African Mediterranean region, utilizing 1% of available land would yield a potential installable capacity of 2,800 GW. Additionally, specific countries have allocated tracts of land for renewable energy development. Since 2022, Egypt has set aside 40,000 square kilometers of land for electricity and renewable energy generation. France's complex land regulation challenges widespread solar deployment because, by law, 52% and 40% of land are reserved for agriculture and forests, respectively. Similarly, cropland regulatory constraints have resulted in only 1% of Italy's land being suitable for solar development. The Government of Morocco has announced that 1 million hectares will be reserved for renewable projects, green hydrogen, and green ammonia development.

Civil Society Engagement

Mediterranean Alliance of Think Tanks on Climate Change (MATTCCh): Consisting of a network of Mediterranean-focused think tanks, MATTCCh aims to advance policy development and advocacy efforts through research and collaboration. MATTCCh intends to "promote dialogue with the countries of the south of the region and to advance ambitious climate objectives, as ways to also guarantee the European Green Pact and the objective of climate neutrality of the European Union in 2050 in a fair and inclusive way."

European Environmental Bureau: A network of environmental civil society organizations that collaborate to advance environmental efforts across Europe. As of November 2024, the Bureau has 185 member organizations representing 41 countries.

TeraMed: Consortium of civil society organizations working to deliver 1 terawatt (1,000 gigawatts) of renewable power in the Mediterranean by 2030. Partners consist of Ecco, Eco-Union, Ember, European Climate Foundation, E3G, Global Solar Council, The Greening Islands Foundation, The Imal Initiative, Natural Resource Governance Institute, Mediterranean Dialogue on Sustainable Energy and Climate, Pooled fund on International Energy, Power Shift Africa, the Arab Network for Environment and Development, the Regional Center for renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, ReNew2030, the Sustainable Economics and Finance Association, and Zero.

Mediterranean Youth Climate Network: Network of organizations (both youth-focused and not) from 22 Mediterranean nations that coordinate on efforts related to climate action and sustainability education.

Center for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE): Founded in 1992, CEDARE oversees initiatives in line with the Global Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Developments and its goals related to Water Resources Management; Land Resources Management; Knowledgem Information, and Communication Technologies; Sustainable Growth; and Environmental Governance.

Arab Network for Environment and Development (RAED): Based in Egypt and founded in 1990, RAED includes representation from Arab, Mediterranean, and North African countries and intends to strengthen member states' capacities for sustainable development. The preservation of natural resources and the environment as a whole is a priority for the group.

Mediterranean Information Office for Environment, Culture and Sustainable Development (MIO-ECSDE): Network of 134 non-governmental organizations working across 28 countries in the Euro-Mediterranean region aiming to "protect the Natural Environment and Cultural Heritage and promote Sustainable Development in a peaceful Mediterranean." The networks works with governments, international organizations, and other socioeconomic partners.

Governmental information

In July 2024, European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen appointed a new commissioner for the Medierranean, Dubravka Šuica. In this role, Commissioner Šuica will collaborate with other commissioners with jurisdictions across Europe to strengthen prosperity, advance the European market economy, support the green and digital transition, and sustain quality of life.

Related governmental policies

At a regional level, the Union for the Mediterranean has made three significant declarations:

• The Ministerial Declaration on Environment and Climate Change, which stresses the need to reduce marine pollution and greenhouse gas emissions to minimize negative impacts on the Mediterranean region, which is particularly vulnerable to climate events.
• The Ministerial Declaration on Sustainable Blue Economy, which calls for strategic coordination on activities and planning pertaining to offshore activities, including offshore renewable energy and other ocean uses.
• The Ministerial Declaration on Energy, in which signatories agree to collaborate on climate and clean energy planning to encourage sustainable business development and knowledge exchange.

Other relevant agreements are:

• Desert Power 2050, which can be considered the "most ambitious strategy report towards the decarbonization of the power sector in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa" at the time of its publication in 2014.
• European Green Deal, which aims to reduce the European Union's overall emissions by 55% by 2030. The Deal's overall package includes provisions for reducing emissions across sectors, encouraging emissions trading, plant and protect natural carbon sinks, and create support mechanisms for small businesses and citizens alike.
• Fit for 55, a package of cross-cutting policy proposals intended to bring the European Union to its 55% emissions reduction goal as outlined in the European Green Deal. Proposals include provisions related to a socially fair transition and strengthening global competitiveness.
• Green Deal Industrial Plan, which aims to bolster Europe's manufacturing base of low-carbon and net-zero technologies in line with the European Green Deal's emission reduction targets.

Policies, plans, strategies, and roadmaps for individual countries are listed in the (non-comprehensive) table below:

Clean energy policies, regulations, and roadmaps in high priority Mediterranean countries

Country	Policy/Regulation/Roadmap	Year	Summary
Algeria	National Program for the Development of Renewable Energy	2020	Intended to bring Algeria to a 30% renewable energy share by 2035 and install 22,000 MW by 2030, including 13,500 MW of solar PV, 5,000 MW of wind, 2,000 MW of concentrated solar power, and 1,000 MW of bioenergy.
Egypt	Vision of Egypt 2030	2023	Egypt's national agenda for sustainable development. Introduces six primary goals for sustainable development: 1) improve Egyptians' quality of life and raise their standards of living; 2) advance social justice and equality; 3) create an integrated and sustainable environmental system; 4) drive the economy towards being diversified, knowledge-based, and competitive; 5) properly develop infrastructure; and 6) foster good governance and partnerships that promote accountability, responsibility, and transparency.
	Egypt National Climate Change Strategy 2050	2022	Roadmap for Egypt's efforts to combat climate change and its effects on residents. The approach centers economic development and low-emission activities to maximize Egypt's sustainable advancement.
France	Energy and Climate Law (Law no. 2019-1147)	2019	Establishes a target of net carbon neutrality by 2050, calls for the closure of France's last four coal-fired power plants (coal phase-out was extended to 2027), and makes the High Council for the Climate a permanent body at the national level.
	Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan for France	2020 (Updated 2024)	Outlines procedures and strategies for achieving France's 2030 and 2035 clean energy and climate goals. In particular, the plan outlines how the country will achieve the targets outlined in the Energy and Climate Law (2019).
	France 2030 Investment Plan	2022	Among other investments, the Plan includes EUR 1 billion for renewable energy innovation projects, which is intended to facilitate deployment of 100 GW of renewable energy by 2050.
Greece	National Climate Law	2022	Creates a legal framework for Greek climate action, with provisions related to the country's existing energy crisis. The law also established a target of net zero by 2050.
	National Energy and Climate Plan for Greece	2023	Establishes a goal of reducing national greenhouse gas emissions by 58% by 2030, as well as an 80% reduction by 2040 and carbon neutrality by 2050.
Italy	Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan for Italy	2019, updated in 2024	Outlines strategies that Italy will employ to reach the EU's emissions reduction target. Includes 10 objectives, including (but not limited to): full decarbonization of energy sector by 2050, support small and medium-sized enterprises, greater adoption of renewables, electrification of transportation sector, and supportive research, development, and monitoring. Under the PNIEC 2024 policy scenario, which accounts for both existing and planned activities, Italy could reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 66% compared to 2005 levels, as well as achieve 39.4% renewable energy share in the country's final gross consumption.
Jordan	Law No. 12 of 2024 on Energy and Energy Conservation	2024	Overturns Jordan's 2019 ban on approving electricity projects greater than 1 MW in size. The law also addresses growing demand for renewable energy and provides new regulatory mechanisms for approving renewable energy projects.
	Third National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (2024-2026)	2024	Aims to improve energy efficiency in final energy consumption and electricity consumption by nearly 4.5% and 5.5%, respectively, by 2026 compared to 2018.
Libya	National Strategy for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency	2023	Outlines pathways for reaching 17% renewables in the national energy mix by 2025, 19% by 2030, and 20% by 2035.
Morocco	Generation Green 2020-2030	2020	While primarily focused on the sustainable development of Morocco's agricultural sector, the plan includes provisions to ensure the sector's longevity in the face of climate change impacts.
Portugal	National Energy and Climate Plan	2024	Includes technology-specific predictions for installed capacity in 2030, based on its additional policy and measures planning scenario. By the end of the decade, Portugal expects to have nearly 30 GW of wind and solar operating.
Spain	Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan for Spain, 2023-2030	2020, updated in 2023	Establishes the strategies that Spain will undertake to achieve the European Union's larger climate and emissions reduction targets. By 2030, Spain expects a 55% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 2005 (32% reduction compared to 1990 levels), as well as a 48% renewable energy share in final energy consumption.
	Climate Change and Energy Transition Law	2021	Enshrines Spain's target of achieving climate net neutrality by 2050 at the latest. Also aims to increase renewable energy generation to 74% and achieve a 42% renewable energy share in Spain's final energy consumption.
	Just Transition Programme 2021-2027	2021	In response to existing coal phase-out efforts, the Programme aims to foster economic diversification and job creation in highly vulnerable regions of the country. Also includes financing for the green transition.
Tunisia	Renewable Energy Law for Electricity Production (Law No. 2015-12)	2015; updated in 2019	Opens the power grid and allows private companies to generate, export, and utilize clean energy. Also, establishes a 30% (3,800 MW) renewable energy by 2030 target, authorizes use of agricultural lands for clean energy projects, and aims to create 10,000 jobs. A 2019 amendment improves Tunisia's business climate and allows businesses to create corporate power purchase agreements.
Türkiye	2053 Long Term Climate Strategy	2024	Establishes strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation, with special focus on technology, creating a just transition, climate finance, and capacity building. The document covers water resource management; biodiversity and ecosystem services; the transportation, energy, manufacturing, tourism, and agriculture sectors; intersecting priorities like health and social development; climate finance initiatives; and technological development.
	Climate Change Mitigation Strategy and Action Plan, 2024-2030	2024	Outlines climate change strategies and activity plans for meeting Türkiye's climate and environmental goals, as described in the 2053 Net Zero Emission Target, Twelfth Development Plan, Medium-Term Programme, and Nationally Determined Contribution. The Action Plan includes 49 strategies and 260 actions across seven mitigation sectors and two thematic areas. Example strategies are 1) maximizing use of renewable energy, 2) promoting circular economy and resource efficiency in manufacturing, 3) electrifying and integrating the transportation sector, 4) preserving and increasing natural carbon sinks, and 5) developing sustainable investment instruments.
	Offshore Wind Roadmap for Türkiye	2024	Analyzes Türkiye's offshore wind potential with consideration for opportunities and challenges under different growth scenarios. Offshore wind could be a critical tool in Türkiye's energy transition due to its large project size capable of meeting a growing demand, close proximity to demand centers, and potential for job creation and economic growth. The Roadmap was created in conjunction with the World Bank.

Each country's Nationally Determined Contribution can be found below:

• Algeria's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (2015)
• Egypt's Second Updated Nationally Determined Contributions (2023)
• Nationally Determined Contribution of the European Union and its Member States. Applies to France, Italy, and Spain. (2023)
• Jordan's Nationally Determined Contribution (2021)
• Lebanon's Nationally Determined Contribution (2020)
• Morocco's Nationally Determined Contribution - Updated (2021)
• Tunisia's Nationally Determined Contribution - Updated (2022)
• Republic of Türkiye Updated First Nationally Determined Contribution (2023)

Relevant international and political coalitions

Union for the Mediterranean (UfM): Comprised of 43 countries, UfM works to advance sustainable development though targeted initiatives and investments. In particular, the organization hopes to advance women's rights and job creation for underrepresented portions of the population (such as women and young people) while increasing connectivity and addressing climate change. Member states are: Albania, Algeria, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mauritania, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, The Netherlands, North Macedonia, Palestine, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Tunisia, and Türkiye. Syria suspended its membership in 2011.

Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EUROMED): Established in 2008, the Partnership is comprised of EU Member States and countries in the Southern Mediterranean. It encourages economic integration and democratic reform.

Mediterranean Dialogue: Partnership forum aiming to increase political dialogue, security, and stability in the region, with participation from NATO countries, Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. Threats of particular interest are instability due to terrorism, biological/radiological/nuclear threats, and maritime security.

Permitting

European Commission

The European Commission, alongside European Parliament and Council of the EU, are working to streamlining permitting in line with the European Union's clean energy targets. Currently, there is a two-year limit for new projects and a one-year limit for repowering projects, though a revised Renewables Directive introduces "renewables acceleration areas" where the limits are reduced to one year and six months, respectively. Additionally, the new Directive provides greater clarity on the permits that developers must seek within that timeline. Members of the EU define these areas within their geographic bounds. The revised Directive was published in 2023, and member states have two years to digitize their respective permitting processes.

Algeria

Algerian renewable energy licensing is relatively new as most energy development has been focused on hydrocarbons. Streamlining regulatory approvals is a priority for the country.

Egypt

The Renewable Energy Law No. 203 (2014) regulates clean energy development in Egypt. This law allows for private independent power producers to participate in tenders issued by the New and Renewable Energy Authority. The same law also established pathways for Build-Own-Operate projects and created a feed-in tariff for private sector developers.

Grid-connected (non-self-consumption) projects smaller than 500 kW are generally exempt from many regulatory requirements. The steps of project development are as follows:

• Determine maximum allowable capacity
• Select the developer
• Apply for a preliminary approval with the network operator
• Complete construction of plants larger than 500 kV within one year
• Plant inspection, conducted by the network operator, to ensure local codes are followed
• Commercial operation may begin

France

Several permits and consents are required for energy projects in France, namely operating permits, construction permits, and environmental authorizations. An Operation Permit is required for renewable energy developments greater than 50 MW, and these permits are automatically granted to the winning bid of a government tender. Construction permits are merged into the Environmental Authorization for applicable projects. For offshore wind projects, an Environmental Authorization is required along with an authorization for use of maritime public domain, as well as an envelope and occupancy permits. Beyond these permits and consents, a project may also require specific agreements regarding grid access, power plant operation, and balance with consumer demand.

Greece

Greece's permitting and licensing protocols were streamlined beginning in 2020. Now, the full licensing process takes approximately 14 months to complete with clear deadlines for authorities to abide by. Parties interested in establishing renewable energy projects must fits acquire a generation certificate, which requires less documentation and is granted faster than previous applications. The certificate is good for 25 years. Grid connection licenses are either approved or rejected, followed by installation licenses that are good for three years. Additionally, parties interested in bidding in energy tenders must pay EUR 35,000 to participate to minimize "application hoarding" and reduce potential resale of awards. Despite these reforms, renewable energy projects still often face grid connection delays.

Italy

Italy follows a Single Authorization procedure where representatives from all relevant public entities sit on a steering committee that approves all required permits and clearances for construction and operation at once.

Italy has recently passed legislation intended to further streamline renewable energy approval processes. The legislation identifies "acceleration zones" wherein certain permitting approvals, such as environmental impact assessments, are not required or are highly simplified. In addition, the legislation creates streamlined pathways depending on project size, type, and location while shortening evaluation timelines and removing requirements for refurbishing existing power plants.

Jordan

Jordan suspended the issuance of renewable energy licenses from 2019 to 2024. After the passage of Law No. 12 of 2024 (Energy and Energy Efficiency Law), solar development has been more strongly encouraged across Jordan with prosumers able to participate in wheeling, net billing, zero to grid, or buy-all/sell-all schemes. All but buy-all/sell-all schemes impose grid fees.

Lebanon

Lebanon does not have an independent electricity regulator, receives minimal investment from the private sector, and has a national grid full of aging and inadequate infrastructure. These factors contribute to a fragmented licensing system in the country, making navigating project development particularly challenging.

Libya

Libya lacks a traditional, comprehensive regulatory structures needed for renewable energy project licensing, though some solar projects have received investment licenses. Instead, projects are reliant on the implementation of Power Purchase Agreements.

Morocco

Morocco operates a one-stop-shop to aid independent power producers in acquiring necessary agreements and permits for land acquisition, financing, and state investment guarantees. It is housed by the Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy (MASEN), which aims to add 6,000 MW of clean electricity to Morocco's grid by 2030.

Portugal

Renewable energy projects in Portugal must acquire the following consents, permits, and permissions:

• Injection Capacity Reserve Title: A permission that confirms that the electrical grid has sufficient capacity for the project to be brought online.
• Production License: Granted by the Directorate General of Energy and Geology (DGEG), the Production License grants permission for the project to be developed and supply electricity to Portugal's network.
• Construction Permit: After the Production License is granted, the Construction Permit is provided by the municipality in which the project will be hosted.
• Operation License: After construction and inspections are complete, DGEG grants an Operation License to the development before project operation can begin.

Spain

Delayed evaluation of environmental impact statements has hindered rollout of Spain's renewable energy industry. To combat this, Spain has:

1. Allowed for mass approvals of environmental impact statements, which stakeholders have criticized
2. Introduced new regulations to accelerate evaluation and processing of environmental impact statements

Tunisia

Depending on the size of the project, Tunisia employs two different project regimes: the Concessions regime, which is applicable for large-scale projects typically designed for energy export, and the Authorizations regime, which is for projects with a maximum capacity of 10 MW, 30 MW, and 15 MW for solar, wind, and biomass projects, respectively. Projects generally go through the following process:

1. After the publication of project calls, applications are reviewed by the Technical Commission for Private Power Generation (CTER, housed within the Ministry of Energy). Applications should contain a preliminary study that covers proposed connection, associated cost, and potential grid reinforcement expenses.
2. Before being granted authorization, potential project developers need to secure a preliminary agreement called the Accord de Principe from the Ministry of Energy. Only applicants who have been recommended by CTER will receive an Accord de Principe. For solar PV projects, it is valid for two years, though applicants may file an extension if implementation challenges delay development.
3. After an agreement is made, developers will enter into a Power Purchase Agreement with STEG. PPAs are standardized and are not negotiated between the project company and STEG. This may present problems in the case that STEG defaults on payments, given that the PPA lacks stipulations for letters of credit or state support, both of which would reduce risk for the project developer.
4. An operating permit is granted once the plant is constructed and STEG has verified its compliance with technical specifications. An operating license typically lasts 20 years.
5. Acquiring land may comprise of two different processes. If land is privately owned, a land audit is undertaken to ensure accuracy and legitimacy of the title. When a property is privately-owned but unregistered, a land survey can help establish ownership rights and assess land consistency, usage, and potential easements. For public property, a land audit is conducted to support granting of occupancy permits and lease contracts.

SolarQuarter has identified permitting and licensing timelines as a barrier to renewables development and recommends simplifying and streamlining these processes to expedite project development and instill confidence in investors. Additionally, a 2018 study by the United Nations Development Programme highlighted one-stop-shop mechanisms as a means of streamlining the permitting process, though as of 2022, that platform does not yet exist.

Türkiye

The Turkish government is in the midst of permitting reform to accelerate commissioning of 8,000-10,000 MW in the next decade. Specifically, the government aims to reduce permitting timelines from 48 to 24 months, on average.

Transmission

Proposed and existing interconnection projects planned by Med-TSO. Originally published in the Med-TSO 2022 Ten-Year Network Development Plan. The upcoming projects are as follows:
West Mediterranean Corridor
Project 1: Morocco-Portugal, nominal transfer capacity of 1000 MW
Project 2: Spain-Morocco, nominal transfer capacity of 600/650 MW
Project 3: Algeria-Spain, nominal transfer capacity of 1000 MW
Central Mediterranean Corridor & North Africa Backbone
Project 4: Italy-Tunisia, nominal transfer capacity of 600 MW
Project 15: Algeria-Italy, nominal transfer capacity of 1000 MW
Project 5: Algeria-Tunisia, nominal transfer capacity of 750 MW
Project 19: Algeria-Libya, nominal transfer capacity of 1000 MW
Project 18: Egypt-Libya, nominal transfer capacity of 1000 MW
East Mediterranean Interconnectors
Project 6: Egypt-Türkiye, nominal transfer capacity of 3000 MW
Project 7: Israel-Türkiye, nominal transfer capacity of 2000 MW
Project 12: Greece-Cyprus-Israel, nominal transfer capacity of 1000/1000 MW
Project 13: Cyprus-Egypt, nominal transfer capacity of 1000 MW
Project 16: Egypt-Greece, nominal transfer capacity of 2000 MW
Eastern Balkan Corridor
Project 11: Bulgaria-Türkiye-Greece, nominal transfer capacity of 1100/-700/+-600 MW
Project 17: Italy-Greece, nominal transfer capacity of 500 MW
Middle East Mediterranean Integration
Project 9: Jordan-Syria, nominal transfer capacity of 1000 MW
Project 10: Syria-Türkiye, nominal transfer capacity of 600 MW
Project 14: Jordan-Palestine, nominal transfer capacity of 200/-0 MW
Project 8: Egypt-Jordan, nominal transfer capacity of 550 MW

Current transmission resources

Morocco has been connected to Spain since 1997 and currently has two alternating current (AC), 400-kV cables with a technical capacity of 700 MW apiece. A third 700-MW interconnection line is expected to be operational by 2026, and an additional 1,800 MW high-voltage direct current (HVDC) is being proposed to connect Morocco to the United Kingdom.

New transmission needed for renewables

European decarbonization and emission reduction goals require a decarbonized Mediterranean region, and interconnected grids between North Africa and Europe will facilitate this. By exporting electricity from Europe during summer months, the Maghreb grid would be better stabilized.

ELMED, a planned subsea electricity cable, will connect Tunisia to Italy and facilitate bidirectional electricity exchange between the European and African power grids. The 600-MW, 500-kV cable will run 220 kilometers from Partanna in Sicily to Mlaabi in Tunisia and will enable greater deployment of renewables on both continents, as well as strengthen resilience and further integrate both markets.

The TuNur Italy Transmission Line will the ample solar resources of southern Tunisia to consumers in Europe. The project will consist of 660 km of 525-kV ACDC overhead lines in Tunisia, 661 km of 525-kV DC submarine cables, and 7 km of 525-kV DC and 400-kV underground cables, terminating at an existing high-voltage substation.

Social and environmental impacts of new transmission

Concerns exist surrounding the renewable energy industry's replication of unjust tactics employed by past fossil fuel energy developers. For example, the TuNur Italy Transmission Line will connect an existing Tunur CSP and PV solar plant to consumers in Europe. Activists argue that the project as a whole is an example of "green grabbing," or "the appropriation of land and resources under the guise of environmental goals." The land and water intensity, coupled with the exportation of power away from marginalized region of the country, has generated local frustration.

The 600-MW Tunisia-Italy interconnector line (ELMED), a 200-km undersea cable, will connect both countries' power grids with the intention of increasing energy security, allowing for greater integration of renewable energy, and reducing emissions. The project has received financial support from the World Bank ($268.4 million), the Government of Italy, the European Union, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the European Investment Bank, and KfW, a German development bank. This is essential to Tunisia’s sustainable development and climate change strategy, positioning the country as a regional renewable energy hub by connecting to the much larger European network.

Explosions damaging the Nord Stream pipelines in the Baltic Sea have brought new attention to the protection of subsea infrastructure, including undersea cables. To better surveil and protect this equipment, the European Union and NATO have created new tools, risk analyses, autonomous systems, and other cooperative efforts, though most of these efforts have been focused in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Atlantic Ocean, leaving the Mediterranean relatively vulnerable.

Ownership

Major owners of current fossil capacity

According to Global Energy Monitor, the major owners (3,000+ MW) of existing and upcoming fossil fuel capacity are:

• A2A SpA (Italy): 9,025 MW
• ACWA Power Co (Egypt and Türkiye): 3,177.4 MW
• East Delta Electricity Production (Egypt): 8,880 MW
• Edison SpA (Italy): 7,323 MW
• Egyptian Electricity Holding Co. (Egypt): 40,716.7 MW
• Electricité de France SA (France): 5,793 MW
• Electricity Generation Company (Türkiye): 8,325 MW
• Endesa SA (Spain): 7,316.6 MW
• Enel SpA (Italy): 13,246 MW
• Energetický a průmyslový holding AS (France and Italy): 7,791.6 MW
• ENGIE SA (France, Italy, and Morocco): 4,937 MW
• Eni SpA (Italy): 5,938.5 MW
• ENKA İnşaat ve Sanayi A (Türkiye): 4,890 MW
• Iberdrola SA (Spain): 5,821.3 MW
• Naturgy Energy Group SA (Spain): 6,513.9 MW
• Office National de l'Electricité et de l'Eau Potable (Morocco): 6,708 MW
• TotalEnergies SE (France and Spain): 3,515.2 MW
• Tunisian Company of Electricity and Gas (Tunisia): 6,671 MW

Major owners of prospective renewables

Major owners (3,000+ MW) of prospective wind, solar, nuclear, hydropower, and geothermal are:

• Acciona: 4,121.1 MW of wind and solar in Italy and Spain. Additional 168.4 MW in partnerships.
• AGNES SRL: 4,460 MW of wind in Italy.
• Akkuyu Nuclear Joint Stock Company: 4,800 MW of nuclear in Türkiye.
• AvenHexicon: 7,050 MW of wind in Italy.
• Bruc Iberica Energy Investment Partners: 5,139.6 MW of solar in Spain.
• Capital Energy: 4,518.6 MW of wind and solar in Spain. Additional 23 MW in partnerships.
• Cobra Group: 3,685.1 MW of wind and solar in Spain.
• Electricité de France SA: 12,440.7 of wind and nuclear in France. Additional 2,435 MW in partnerships.
• Endesa SA: 4,608.6 MW of wind and solar in Spain. Additional 50 MW in partnerships.
• Forestalia SL: 6,862.5 MW of wind and solar in Spain. Additional 100 MW in partnerships.
• Grupo Ibereólica Renovables: 3,677.9 of wind and solar in Spain.
• Iberdrola Renovables Energia: 7,230.6 of wind and solar in Spain. Additional 40 MW in partnerships.
• Ignis Energia: 3,461.8 MW of solar in Spain.
• New and Renewable Energy Authority: 49,359 MW of wind and solar in Egypt. Additional 50 MW in partnerships.
• Nuclear Power Plants Authority: 4,800 MW of nuclear in Egypt.
• Renantis SpA and Bluefloat Energy: 3,475 MW of wind in Italy.
• Scatec ASA: 5,000 MW of wind in Egypt. Additional 360 MW in partnerships.
• Türkiye Atom Enerjisi Kurumu: 4,050 MW of nuclear in Türkiye.
• Xlinks and Octopus Energy: 10,500 MW of wind and solar in Morocco.

Finance

In 2018, total green climate finance into the southeastern Mediterranean region reached EUR €6.95 billion, of which 58% was provided by multilateral development banks and 41% from bilateral contributions from the EU. The final 1% originated from other international climate finance sources. Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) counties tend to have more projects focused on mitigation rather than adaptation, with EUR €4.25 billion for the former and EUR €1.09 billion contributed for the latter. Additionally, Private Participation in Infrastructure (PPI) is present in the region, with France alone providing USD $2.1 billion across 14 projects globally. In 2023, Egypt saw USD $2.3 billion in PPI investment across six projects, while Tunisia saw USD $292 million across two projects, Morocco saw USD $117 million accross two projects, Algeria saw USD $72 million for one project, Türkiye saw USD $434 million for four projects, and Libya saw USD $72 million for one project (its first PPI investment transaction in more than ten years).

Continued Financial Support of Fossil Fuels

As recently as 2023, the Government of Tunisia has earmarked subsidies to support fossil fuels and electricity development.

Potential providers of wind/solar finance

Mediterranean Regional Funds

The European Neighbourhood Policy aims to bridge the European Union with nearby countries in North Africa, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. The Southern Neighbourhood established an Agenda for the Mediterranean containing five policy areas: 1) human development, good governance, and rule of law; 2) resilience, prosperity, and digital transition; 3) peace and security; 4) migration and mobility; and 5) green transition. Between 2007 and 2020, the European Union has allocated EURO 20.5 billion to Southern Neighbourhood region, which includes Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestine, Syria, and Tunisia. An additional EUR 12 billion is allocated from the EU from 2021 to 2027. These investments are used for a slew of development projects, including climate resilience, clean energy, and the environment.

The EU's Connecting Europe Facility (CEF) is a critical mechanism for financing the European Green Deal. EUR 5.84 billion has been allocated for work related to the energy transition between 2021 and 2027, which is to be spent on renewable energy projects, interoperability of networks, and increased integration of the European energy market. EUR €307 million has been allocated from the CEF program to finance the Elmed undersea electricity cable connecting Tunisia and Italy. In total, EUR €850 million has been allocated to the project, including the Commission's €307 million, a USD $268.4 million loan from the World Bank, EUR €125 million from the European Investment Bank, a EUR €27 million grant from the European Union's Neighbourhood Investment Platform, and a EUR €45 million loan from the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

The Blue Mediterranean Partnership collects funding and expertise from a range of partners to tackle challenges impacting the Mediterranean and Red Sea (specifically Egypt, Morocco, and Jordan), including overfishing, pollution, and climate change. While offshore energy is not a specific area of focus, the funds might be able to support offshore wind as a too for climate change mitigation and resilience. The funding is managed by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, with EUR €1 million allocated from the European Commission and additional commitments from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (EUR €6.5 million) and Agence Française de Développement (EUR €2 million).

In December 2024, the African Development Bank approved a loan of USD $170 million in support of Egypt's Suez Wind Project, estimated at 1.1 GW. Total project costs are estimated to be USD $1.1 billion.

Country-Specific Funds

In Italy, Gruppo Hera finances clean energy and environmental projects through green bonds and green loans with a total financing package calued at EUR €500 million.

Morocco's National Energy and Energy Efficiency Plan has resulted in an estimated USD $9 billion invested in solar and USD $3.4 billion in wind. The Ouarzazate solar project received USD $1 billion in financing from KfW, USD $596 million from the European Invesmtne Bank, and USD $400 million from the world bank.

Other

To support the European Green Deal, the European Union established a new Social Climate Fund. With support totaling EUR €86 billion, of which EUR €65 billion is from the European Union's budget, the Fund will "ensure there are opportunities for everyone, by tackling inequality and energy poverty, and strengthening the competitiveness of European companies."

In a similar vein, the European Commission has developed a Just Transition Fund intended to support workers' transitions in the areas of up- and reskilling, investing in small businesses, research and development, and clean energy development. The Fund has a budget of EUR €19.32 billion for a period of 2021 to 2027.

Finally, the Islamic Development Bank has begun issuing green sukuks, or Sharia-aligned Islamic bonds, which promote environmental stewardship and sustainable development in its member countries.

Articles and resources

Related GEM.wiki articles

Proposed coal plants in Africa and the Middle East | Proposed coal plants in Europe | Egypt and coal | France and coal | Italy and coal | Morocco and coal | Spain and coal | Türkiye and coal | Power Sector Transition in Morocco | Power Sector Transition in Tunisia